There are several choices in selecting the most suitable beach products skimboard that matches you, and it's not a simple task. Buying a board are depends upon the purpose you prefer. For instance, if you're doing lots of tricks, you should buy a wooden skimboard with a graphite coat. If you're a beginner it would best to try a foam or wooden type of board. To help you in selecting the best board that suits you, below are the four important tips to consider.
Check your level of skills. It's important that you must find out your level of skill. It's advisable to use wooden skimboards if you're a beginner and it usually cheaper than fiberglass skimboards. If you're a professional, it's best to use a fiberglass board. The benefit is that fiberglass boards are lighter and faster that is why you can possibly gain more speed while riding the waves.
Check the materials of your chosen skimboards. There are three different materials used in bodyboards, these are fiberglass, wood, and carbon. Wood and fiberglass are the mostly use materials in skimboard, and for modern ones are carbon. The fiberglass boards’ coat is smoother than the wooden board. You must consider the advantages and disadvantages of each materials of board to see which one that you think will suits you.
Know your weight and height. Each materials of board have a certain weight limit for users. Ensure that you bought a board that could handle your weight and not ending up buying the wrong one. Similar to the height, keep in mind that most experienced skimboarders prefer boards that can reach their mid-chest height when stood on end. And also remember to check the specific guidelines of the boards to see if it's right for your weight and height.
Also consider the price of each board. This is another important thing you must consider in buying skimboard. You must consider that there are various available options with the price of boards and you can check it online and in your local beach gear store.
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Showing posts with label Facts. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Facts. Show all posts
Whenever you have selected a travel destination for a good tourist attraction don't forget these some important tips before booking an accommodation to get the best results.
Before you book you must do some research for the company you have on your list. Don't just believe on anything that the company have advertised. Asked if they have some recent photos of the accommodation you have on your list to make it sure that you are selecting the best accommodation. Don't believe to what they say that they are the 'best,' but instead investigate to make more clarification on the information you have been search.
Another way to get the best accommodation is to check your listed company for its star rating as this is a very good indicator of the standards of accommodation you are about to book.
Also check for costumer’s testimony who have stayed at the venue or resort and see what they had to say. Be careful, remember that some people are very hard to please sometimes but if there are a large number of negative comments, that suggest that you have move onto the next place you have on your accommodation list.
Remember that it is vital that you have a clear view of what you want and the standards of accommodation you set to take along with the geographical location of the spots you wish to visit in deciding the best accommodation deal. Also remember that some company provides free passes to a few well know tourist attractions, discounted meal and free public transport coupons, baby sitting and access to several in-house facilities that you might miss out on unless you inquire for these while booking your best accommodation deal. You might want to take a homestay accommodation in Barcelona.
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Hiring a private jet is the best option you can get. Why? It will save your time and energy. It also allows you to free from hassle, stress and add your productivity. It also allows you to have convenience, flexibility and comfort. Include to that, it provides safety and reliable way of travel. Let's find out why?
Saves Time: Why? Because private jet hire will make you to be the boss. You can leave or go anywhere when you decide. It will also give you the freedom to control your schedules and plan out your entire schedule according to your business need. You can also alter your schedule if it is required not like in a commercial airline that often leads to delays and cancelled flights that can waste your great time. In short, you can avoid delays and saves a lot of time in hiring private jet.
Productivity: Because a private jet saves your time, you can spend more time on your business. It also has a privacy that allows you to make much easier to conduct business while in your route to your destination. You can also prepare for a meeting or even conduct a meeting on your private jet charter with your co-workers as you travel to your destination.
Convenience: Because of more burdens and delays with the commercial airlines, traveling with a private jet can become simpler and enjoyable. Not only that, private jet also brings you closer to your final destination because it flies in more airports. It also brings you the opportunity to board more quickly because you can board without an airport check-in.
Safety: This is the most important benefit of hiring a private jet because you can get a high level of security. Private jets also don’t need you to stand into a queue to get through the security area. You also don't need to worry about luggage loss like on commercial airlines. In short, you can get a high level of comfort, privacy and security.
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Saves Time: Why? Because private jet hire will make you to be the boss. You can leave or go anywhere when you decide. It will also give you the freedom to control your schedules and plan out your entire schedule according to your business need. You can also alter your schedule if it is required not like in a commercial airline that often leads to delays and cancelled flights that can waste your great time. In short, you can avoid delays and saves a lot of time in hiring private jet.
Productivity: Because a private jet saves your time, you can spend more time on your business. It also has a privacy that allows you to make much easier to conduct business while in your route to your destination. You can also prepare for a meeting or even conduct a meeting on your private jet charter with your co-workers as you travel to your destination.
Convenience: Because of more burdens and delays with the commercial airlines, traveling with a private jet can become simpler and enjoyable. Not only that, private jet also brings you closer to your final destination because it flies in more airports. It also brings you the opportunity to board more quickly because you can board without an airport check-in.
Safety: This is the most important benefit of hiring a private jet because you can get a high level of security. Private jets also don’t need you to stand into a queue to get through the security area. You also don't need to worry about luggage loss like on commercial airlines. In short, you can get a high level of comfort, privacy and security.
Whales at Digby Neck (Nova Scotia): For a chance to see fin, minke, or humpback whales, choose from a dozen whale-watching outfitters located along this narrow peninsula of remote fishing villages. Right, sperm, blue, and pilot whales, along with the infrequent Orcas, have also been seen over the years. Getting to the tip of the peninsula is half the fun — it requires two ferries.
Birds and Caribou on the Avalon Peninsula (Newfoundland): In one busy day you can see a herd of caribou, the largest puffin colony in North America, and an extraordinary gannet colony visible from the mainland cliffs.
Whales at Baie Ste-Catherine (Québec): At Baie Ste-Catherine, about a 2-hour drive northeast of Québec City, and along the northern shore to the resort area of La Malbaie, hundreds of resident beluga and minke whales are joined by several additional species of their migratory cousins, including humpbacks and blues. Mid-June to early October, you can spot the graceful giants from land, but whale-watching cruises depart from Baie Ste-Catherine for closer looks.
Pelicans in Prince Albert National Park (Saskatchewan): On Lavallee Lake roosts the second-largest pelican colony in North America. Bison, moose, elk, caribou, black bear, and red fox also roam free in this 400,000-hectare (1 million-acre) wilderness.
Orcas off Vancouver Island (British Columbia): The waters surrounding Vancouver Island teem with orcas (killer whales), as well as harbor seals, sea lions, bald eagles, and harbor and Dahl’s porpoises. In Victoria, Seafun Safaris Whale Watching, 950 Wharf St. (tel. 877/360-1233 or 250/360-1200; www.seafun.com), is one of many companies offering whale-watching tours in Zodiacs and covered boats.
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Birds and Caribou on the Avalon Peninsula (Newfoundland): In one busy day you can see a herd of caribou, the largest puffin colony in North America, and an extraordinary gannet colony visible from the mainland cliffs.
Whales at Baie Ste-Catherine (Québec): At Baie Ste-Catherine, about a 2-hour drive northeast of Québec City, and along the northern shore to the resort area of La Malbaie, hundreds of resident beluga and minke whales are joined by several additional species of their migratory cousins, including humpbacks and blues. Mid-June to early October, you can spot the graceful giants from land, but whale-watching cruises depart from Baie Ste-Catherine for closer looks.
Pelicans in Prince Albert National Park (Saskatchewan): On Lavallee Lake roosts the second-largest pelican colony in North America. Bison, moose, elk, caribou, black bear, and red fox also roam free in this 400,000-hectare (1 million-acre) wilderness.
Orcas off Vancouver Island (British Columbia): The waters surrounding Vancouver Island teem with orcas (killer whales), as well as harbor seals, sea lions, bald eagles, and harbor and Dahl’s porpoises. In Victoria, Seafun Safaris Whale Watching, 950 Wharf St. (tel. 877/360-1233 or 250/360-1200; www.seafun.com), is one of many companies offering whale-watching tours in Zodiacs and covered boats.
The Beginnings of Sushi
Sushi has been around for a surprisingly long period of time, although not in its present form. The history of sushi is an interesting tale of the evolution of a simple dish. What was to become sushi was first mentioned in China in the second century A.D. Originally, sushi arose out of a way of preserving food. Fish was placed in rice and allowed to ferment, which allowed an individual to keep the fish edible for some time. The rice was thrown away and the fish was eaten when needed or wanted.
The method spread throughout China and by the seventh century, had made its way to Japan, where seafood has historically been a staple. The Japanese, however, took the concept further and began to eat the rice with the fish. Originally, the dish was prepared in much the same manner. In the early 17th century, however, Matsumoto Yoshiichi of Edo (now Tokyo) starting seasoning the rice with rice wine vinegar while making his ‘sushi’ for sale. This allowed the dish to be eaten immediately, instead of waiting the months it might normally take to prepare the ‘sushi.’
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| Well-known 'Sushi' |
The Evolution of Sushi
In the early 19th century, a man by the name of Hanaya Yohei conceived a major change in the production and presentation of his sushi. No longer wrapping the fish in rice, he placed a piece of fresh fish on top of an oblong shaped piece of seasoned rice. Today, we call this style ‘nigiri sushi’ (finger sushi) or “edomae sushi” (from Edo, the name of Tokyo at the time) and is now the common way of eating Japanese sushi. At that time, sushi was served from sushi stalls on the street and was meant to be a snack or quick bite to eat on the go. Served from his stall, this was not only the first of the real ‘fast food’ sushi, but quickly became wildly popular. From his home in Edo, this style of serving sushi rapidly spread throughout Japan, aided by the Great Kanto earthquake in 1923, as many people lost their homes and businesses and moved from Tokyo.
After World War Two, the sushi stalls were shut down and moved indoors, to more sanitary conditions. More formal seating was later provided (the first iterations were merely an indoor version of the sushi stalls) and sushi changed from ‘fast food’ to a true dining experience. Sushi spread around the globe, and with the advent of the promotion of seafood, this unusual style of serving fish was quickly adopted by western cultures, always eager for something new, especially something that had grown as sophisticated and unique as sushi.
Modern Sushi
Sushi, the artful dining experience once uniquely Japanese, has now evolved to another level beyond the traditional Japanese methods. Western influences have given rise to new styles of sushi, such as California rolls and the many elaborate ‘fusion’ creations at upscale sushi restaurants. The history of sushi is a long one, at least 1,800 years in fact, but the current iteration is popular around the world, and rightly so. It is not often that something so singly cultural can not only take the world by storm, but also influence the direction of food in other cultures. Demand for sushi is only increasing and seems to be continuing to evolve. Traditional sushi restaurants sit alongside ‘fusion’ restaurants and both are popular for their own reasons. The history of sushi is still far from over.
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The United Arab Emirates is a federation which consists of seven emirates. The largest emirate is Abu Dhabi which contains the nation’s capital city Abu Dhabi. Five emirates have one or more exclaves, in addition to the main territory. The seven emirates:
- Abu Dhabi
- Ajman: 1 exclave
- Dubai: 1 exclave
- Fujairah: 2 exclaves
- Ras al-Khaimah: 1 exclave
- Sharjah: 3 exclaves
- Umm al-Quwain
The climate of the UAE generally is hot and dry. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 48° C (118° F) on the coastal plain. In the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains, temperatures are considerably cooler, a result of increased altitude. Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10°C (50°F) and 14°C (57°F). During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as the sharqi makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is fewer than 120 mm (5 in), but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (14 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the summer months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily dry wadi beds. The region is prone to occasional, violent dust storms, which can severely reduce visibility. The Jebel Jais mountain cluster in Ras al Khaimah has experienced snow only twice since records began.
The United Arab Emirates is situated in Southwest Asia, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location along southern approaches to the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil. The UAE lies between 22°50′ and 26° north latitude and between 51° and 56°25′ east longitude. It shares a 530-kilometer border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometer border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khawr al Udayd area is a source of ongoing dispute . The total area of the UAE is approximately 77,700 square kilometers. The country’s exact size is unknown because of disputed claims to several islands in the Persian Gulf, because of the lack of precise information on the size of many of these islands, and because most of its land boundaries, especially with Saudi Arabia, remain undemarcated. The largest emirate, Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87 percent of the UAE’s total area (67,340 square kilometers). The smallest emirate, Ajman, encompasses only 259 square kilometers (see figure).
The UAE stretches for more than 650 kilometers along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf. Most of the coast consists of salt pans that extend far inland. The largest natural harbor is at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere. Numerous islands are found in the gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with both Iran and Qatar. The smaller islands, as well as many coral reefs and shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore.
The UAE also extends for about 90 kilometers along the Gulf of Oman, an area known as the Al Batinah coast. The Al Hajar al Gharbi (Western Al Hajar) Mountains, rising in places to 2,500 meters, separate the Al Batinah coast from the rest of the UAE. Beginning at the UAE-Oman border on the Persian Gulf coast of the Ras Musandam (Musandam Peninsula), the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains extend southeastward for about 150 kilometers to the southernmost UAE-Oman frontier on the Gulf of Oman. The range continues as the Al Hajar ash Sharqi (Eastern Al Hajar) Mountains for more than 500 kilometers into Oman. The steep mountain slopes run directly to the shore in many places. Nevertheless, there are small harbors at Dibba Al-Hisn, Kalba, and Khor Fakkan on the Gulf of Oman. In the vicinity of Al Fujayrah, where the mountains do not approach the coast, there are sandy beaches.
South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub al Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensive Al Liwa Oasis is in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia, and about 100 kilometers to the northeast is the Al Buraymi Oasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi-Oman border.
Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British intervention, but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubayy, and also between Dubayy and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains, where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves.
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The UAE’s political and governmental structure is composed within a framework of a federal presidential elected monarchy and composed of a federation of the seven Emirates of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah and Umm al Qaiwain.
The Presidency and Premiership of the United Arab Emirates is de facto hereditary to the Al Nahyan clan of Abu Dhabi and the Al Maktoum clan of Dubai. The President of the United Arab Emirates and the head of state is the ruler of Abu Dhabi and the Prime Minister and Vice President of the United Arab Emirates, is the ruler of Dubai and the head of government. The political influences and financial obligations of the Emirates are reflected by respective positions in the Federal government. While each Emirate still retains autonomy over own territory, a percentage of its revenue is allocated to the UAE’s central budget.
The federal system includes the executive branch which consists of the President, Vice President, the Federal Supreme Council (composed of the Emirates’ seven rulers), and a Cabinet, or Council of Ministers. The legislative branch consists of a parliamentary body, the Federal National Council. A constitutionally independent judiciary includes the Federal Supreme Court.
Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the union’s president from the nation’s founding until his death on November 2, 2004. The Federal Supreme Council elected his son, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, president the next day. Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan is the heir apparent.
The Supreme Council elects the Council of Ministers, while an appointed/elected forty-member Federal National Council, drawn from all the emirates, reviews proposed laws. The UAE’s parliamentary body represents the Emirates, and is half appointed by the rulers of the constituent states and the other half elected indirectly to serve two-year terms. The council carries out the country’s main consultative duties and has both a legislative and supervisory role provided by the Constitution.
There is a federal court system; all emirates except Ras al-Khaimah have joined the federal system; all emirates have both secular and Islamic law for civil, criminal, and high courts.
The UAE took its first steps towards indirect elections for the country’s parliament on National Day, December 2, 2005 upon the official announcement by HH Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan which followed the formation of an Electoral College. A National Electoral Committee was created and the UAE’s first election occurred during mid-December 2006. The election and appointment of nine women (comprising 22.5 per cent of the Council) strongly signified advancement and political participation of women in the United Arab Emirates. The long-term objective is for the FNC to be wholly-elected.
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The United Arab Emirates was formed from the group of tribally organized Arabian Peninsula sheikhdoms along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf and the northwestern coast of the Gulf of Oman.
This area was converted to Islam in the 7th century; for centuries it was embroiled in dynastic disputes. It became known as the Pirate Coast as raiders based there harassed foreign shipping, although both European and Arab navies patrolled the area from the 17th century into the 19th century. Early British expeditions to protect the India trade from raiders at Ras al-Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbors along the coast in 1819 . The next year, a general peace treaty was signed to which all the principal shaikhs of the coast adhered. Raids continued intermittently until 1835 , when the shaikhs agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea. In 1853 , they signed a treaty with the United Kingdom, under which the sheikhs (the "Trucial Sheikhdoms") agreed to a "perpetual maritime truce." It was enforced by the United Kingdom, and disputes among shaikhs were referred to the British for settlement.
Primarily in reaction to the ambitions of other European countries, the United Kingdom and the Trucial Sheikhdoms established closer bonds in an 1892 treaty, similar to treaties entered into by the UK with other Persian Gulf principalities. The shaikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the United Kingdom and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without its consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help out in case of land attack.
In 1955, the United Kingdom sided with Abu Dhabi in the latter’s dispute with Saudi Arabia over the Buraimi Oasis and other territory to the south. A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia would have settled the Abu Dhabi-Saudi border dispute; however, the agreement has yet to be ratified by the UAE Government and is not recognized by the Saudi Government. The border with Oman also remains officially unsettled, but the two governments agreed to delineate the border in May 1999.
In the early 1960s Dubai was ahead of all the other states even that oil was not yet discovered in its territories. Abu Dhabi was behind until His Highness Shaikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1967.
The British had started earlier a development office that helped in some small developments in the Emirates. The shaiks of the Emirates decided then to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. They formed the Trucial States Council, and appointed Adi Bitar; Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum’s Legal Advisor as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. The Council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed
In 1968, the UK announced its decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 , to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms which had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection. The nine attempted to form a union of Arab Emirates, but by mid-1971 they were unable to agree on terms of union, even though the termination date of the British treaty relationship was the end of 1971.
Bahrain became independent in August and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Shaikhdoms treaty expired on December 1, 1971, they became fully independent.
The Rulers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai decided to form a union between their two Emirates independently, prepare a constitution, then call the Rulers of the other five emirates to a meeting and offer them to join. It was also agreed between both of them that Adi Bitar write the constitution and have it ready by 2 December 1971.
On December 2, 1971, at the Dubai Guesthouse Palace four other Emirates agreed to join and enter into a union of six Emirates called the United Arab Emirates. Ras al-Khaimah joined later, in early 1972.
The UAE became a positive element in the region and had an important role to play in engaging in good relations with all its neighboring countries. The UAE sent forces to liberate Kuwait during the 1990-91 Persian Gulf War.
On November 2, 2004, the UAE’s first and only president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded him as Ruler of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the Constitution, the UAE’s Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan as UAE Federal President. Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi.
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The United Arab Emirates (UAE) (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, transliteration: Dawlat al-Imārāt al-‘Arabīyah al-Muttaḥidah) is a federation of seven states situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Southwest Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman and Saudi Arabia. The seven states, termed emirates, are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain.
The UAE, rich in oil and natural gas, has become highly prosperous after gaining foreign direct investment funding in the 1970s. The country has a relatively high Human Development Index for the Asian continent, ranking 31st globally, and had a GDP purchasing power parity of $200.5 billion in 2009 according to the IMF.
The National September 11 Memorial & Museum or formerly the World Trade Center Memorial Foundation, Inc., was formed as a 501(c)(3) non-profit corporation to raise funds and manage the planning and construction of the memorial. Its board of directors had its inaugural meeting on January 4, 2005. The National September 11 Memorial & Museum reached its first phase capital fundraising goal of US$350 million in April 2008. This money, along with additional amounts raised, will be used to build the Memorial & Museum and to create an endowment for the museum.
The National September 11 Memorial Museum will be located 70 feet below ground. An admission fee is under consideration. The museum will feature interactive exhibits that are designed to teach visitors about the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and February 26, 1993 through firsthand accounts and artifacts. The largest asset of the museum will be the exposed slurry wall, which held back the Hudson River and remained standing after the attacks.
The Memorial Mission:
- Remember and honor the thousands of innocent men, women, and children murdered by terrorists in the horrific attacks of February 26, 1993 and September 11, 2001.
- Respect this place made sacred through tragic loss.
- Recognize the endurance of those who survived, the courage of those who risked their lives to save others, and the compassion of all who supported us in our darkest hours.
- May the lives remembered, the deeds recognized, and the spirit reawakened be eternal beacons, which reaffirm respect for life, strengthen our resolve to preserve freedom, and inspire an end to hatred, ignorance and intolerance.
The memorial consists of a park at street level with two recessed square pools located 30 feet (9m) below street level, fed by waterfalls along the walls. At the center of the pools are recessed squares into which the water flows. The waterfalls will be the largest manmade waterfalls in the country.
The names of the victims will be inscribed on parapets surrounding the pools at street level. The design will place the names of the victims who were in Tower 1 and the victims on Flight 11 (which hit Tower 1) around the North Pool. The names surrounding the South Pool will include: those killed in Tower 2, the victims who were in the immediate vicinity of the Towers, the victims on Flight 175 (which hit Tower 2), the first responders, the passengers on Flight 93, which crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, the passengers on Flight 77, which hit The Pentagon; those killed at The Pentagon, and the victims of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Company employees and their visitors will be listed together, but without the names of their companies. Passengers of the four flights will be listed together under their flight numbers. First responders will be listed together with their units.
The Sphere, the Fritz Koenig-designed sculpture that formerly stood in the outdoor plaza between the towers, will be returned to its original location. It is currently located in Battery Park, serving as a temporary memorial.
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The name “France” comes from Latin Francia, which literally means “land of the Franks” or “Frankland”. There are various theories as to the origin of the name of the Franks. One is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.
Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank means free as opposed to slave. This word still exists in French as franc, it is also used as the translation of “Frank” and to name the local money, until the use of the euro in the 2000s.
However, rather than the ethnic name of the Franks coming from the word frank, it is also possible that the word is derived from the ethnic name of the Franks, the connection being that only the Franks, as the conquering class, had the status of freemen. In German, France is still called Frankreich, which literally means “Realm of the Franks”. In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, Modern France is called Frankreich, while the Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich.
The word “Frank” had been loosely used from the fall of Rome to the Middle Ages, yet from Hugh Capet’s coronation as “King of the Franks” (“Rex Francorum”) it became usual to strictly refer to the Kingdom of Francia, which would become France. The Capetian Kings were descended from the Robertines, who had produced two Frankish kings, and previously held the title of “Duke of the Franks” (“dux Francorum”). This Frankish duchy encompassed most of modern northern France but because the royal power was sapped by regional princes the term was then applied to the royal demesne as shorthand. It was finally the name adopted for the entire Kingdom as central power was affirmed over the entire kingdom.
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The French Republic is a united semi-presidential commonwealth with well-set democratic traditions. The constitution of the Fifth Republic was authorized by referendum on 28 September 1958. It greatly strengthened the authority of the administrator in respect to parliament. The executive branch itself bears two leaders: the President of the Republic, who is Head of State and is elected directly by comprehensive adult vote for a 5-year term, and the Government, headed by the president-appointed Prime Minister.
The French parliament is a two-chambered legislative assembly consisting a National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) and a Senate. The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly elected for 5-year terms. The Assembly has the ability to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the majority in the Assembly regulates the selection of government. Senators are selected by an electoral college for 6-year terms, and half of the seats are stated to election every 3 years starting in September 2008. The Senate’s legislative powers are limited; in the outcome of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the unalterable state, except for constitutional laws and laws that are directly provided for by the fundamental law, the lois organiques, in few cases. The government has a strong influence in forming the agenda of Parliament.
French political relation are characterised by two politically opposing groups: one left-wing, centred around the French Socialist Party, and the other right-wing, centred previously around the Rassemblement pour la République (RPR) and now its successor the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). The executive branch is presently composed generally of the UMP.
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| Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789 |
The monarchy reigned France until the French Revolution, in 1789. Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were put to death in 1793, along with thousands of other French citizens. Afterward a series of temporary governmental systems, Napoleon Bonaparte took over control of the Republic in 1799, getting himself First Consul, and later Emperor of what is at present known as the First Empire (1804–1814). In the flow of numerous warfares, his armies conquered most of continental Europe, with members of the Napoleon Bonaparte family line being appointed as monarchs of freshly built kingdoms.
Pursuing Napoleon’s final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the French monarchy was reinstated, but with newly constitutional limits. In 1830, a civil revolt settled the constitutional July Monarchy, which lasted till 1848. The temporary Second Republic ceased in 1852 while Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte declared the Second Empire. Louis-Napoléon was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and his regimen was replaced by the Third Republic.
Pursuing Napoleon’s final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the French monarchy was reinstated, but with newly constitutional limits. In 1830, a civil revolt settled the constitutional July Monarchy, which lasted till 1848. The temporary Second Republic ceased in 1852 while Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte declared the Second Empire. Louis-Napoléon was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and his regimen was replaced by the Third Republic.
France had complex possessions, in different forms, since the beginning of the 17th century until the 1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its global overseas colonial empire was the 2nd largest in the world trailing the British Empire. At its bloom, between 1919 and 1939, the second French colonial empire expanded over 12,347,000 square kilometres of land. Including metropolitan France, the whole area of land under French reign gained 12,898,000 square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, which is 8.6% of the world’s land area.
Although ultimately a winner in World War I and World War II, France suffered large human and material losses. Its metropolitan territory was partially or totally invaded by Germany during the two wars. The 1930s were noted by a sort of social reforms presented by the Popular Front governance. The Fourth Republic was built after World War II and struggled to preserve its economic and political condition as a sovereign country state. France tried to keep to its colonial empire, but shortly encountered difficulty. The lukewarm 1946 attempt at recovering control of French Indochina led in the First Indochina War, which finished in French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Just months afterward, France faced a new, even harsher conflict in Algeria.
The argument over whether or not to retain control of Algeria a home to over one million European settlers, wracked the country and closely led to civil war. In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic, which controlled by a strengthened Presidency. In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together though leading steps to end the war. The Algerian War and Franco-French civil war that led in the capital Algiers, was ended with peace negotiations in 1962 that led to Algerian independence.
In past decades, France’s reconciliation and cooperation with Germany have proved central to the political and economic integration of the evolving European Union, including the introduction of the euro in January 1999. France has been at the forefront of the European Union member states attempting to work the impulse of monetary union to produce a more unified and capable European Union political, defence, and security setup. The French electorate voted against confirmation of the European Constitutional Treaty in May 2005, but the successor Treaty of Lisbon was signed by Parliament in February 2008.
- Total GDP, 2005: 6th (out of 180) (World Bank data)
- Total value of foreign trade (imports and exports) , 2002: 4th (out of 185)
- Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2005: Rank 30 out of 167 countries
- Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 - 18th of 163 countries
From its humble beginnings high in the Peruvian Andes, within 100 miles [160 km] of the Pacific Ocean, the Amazon—swollen by the waters of other rivers along its way—descends some 16,000 feet [5,000 m] to the Atlantic Ocean. It changes name several times before reaching Brazilian territory, where it is first called the Solimões. After its confluence with its most voluminous tributary, the Negro River, near Manaus, it becomes the mighty Amazon.
At this point an unusually beautiful spectacle called the meeting of the waters occurs. The dark coffee-colored waters of the Negro River and the muddy waters of the Solimões meet and flow side by side without mixing for approximately six miles [10 km]. This phenomenon occurs as a result of various factors, including the difference in composition, density, and temperature between the two rivers.
The controversy that surrounds the Amazon’s main tributaries and their headwaters, as well as the complicated geography of its delta, makes it difficult to know exactly where the Amazon begins and where it ends. Based on its most distant outlet in the Pará estuary, which serves as an entry point for shipping, its length is approximately 4,200 miles [6,750 km]. Determining its total length, though, is “more a question of definition than a question of measurement,” says the Brazilian edition of The Guinness Book of Records.
In volume, however, the majesty of the Amazon River is undisputed. Its volume is greater than that of the Mississippi, Nile, and Yangtze rivers combined. With an average discharge of over 7,000,000 cubic feet [200,000 cu m] per second, this monumental river empties into the Atlantic Ocean between 15 and 20 percent of all the fresh water that flows into the world’s oceans. In just 30 seconds, it could quench humanity’s thirst for a day—two pints [one liter] of water for each of earth’s six billion inhabitants!
This extraordinary outpouring “pushes” the sea and forms a layer of fresh water spreading 125 miles [200 km] out into the Atlantic Ocean. It is not surprising that on sighting the river’s mouth, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, a Spanish navigator who entered the Amazon in June 1500, called it Mar Dulce (the Freshwater Sea).
For those who travel on this great river, it seems to be just that—a sea flooding a carpet of forests. At some points it is so broad that a person on one of its banks cannot see the other side. During floods certain stretches of the river are up to 30 miles [50 km] wide! Its depth, averaging from 150 to 250 feet [50 to 80 m] at some stretches, varies according to its width. At its narrowest point, at Óbidos in Pará State, the river is 420 feet [130 m] deep.
Most of the Amazon has a very slight slope—averaging a mere one and a quarter inches per mile. The gentle slope of its estuary allows the tide to penetrate far upstream. Its effects are felt even at Óbidos, 500 miles [800 km] from the river’s mouth.
Because it flows almost parallel to the equator, the Amazon benefits from the summers of both hemispheres. Flooding alternates between the tributaries on the left bank and those on the right bank. As the levels of the rivers rise and fall, first on the north side and then on the south side, the entire Amazon pulsates like a huge heart. Annually, the oscillation of the Amazon’s water level varies between 30 and 40 feet [9 and 12 m]. Flooding is important for agriculture in the region. Because a considerable quantity of mineral substances and organic residues are carried by the river and deposited on its banks, it fertilizes the large lowland areas.
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The Great Lakes — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario — and their connecting channels form the largest fresh surface water system on earth. If you stood on the moon, you could see the lakes and recognize the familiar wolf head shape of Lake Superior, or the mitten bounded by lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie. Covering more than 94,000 square miles and draining more than twice as much land, these Freshwater Seas hold an estimated 6 quadrillion gallons of water, about one-fifth of the world’s fresh surface water supply and nine-tenths of the U.S. supply. Spread evenly across the contiguous 48 states, the lakes’ water would be about 9.5 feet deep.
The channels that connect the Great Lakes are an important part of the system. The St. Marys River is the northernmost of these, a 60-mile waterway flowing from Lake Superior down to Lake Huron. At the St. Marys rapids, the Soo Locks bypass the rough waters, providing safe transport for ships. The St. Clair and Detroit rivers, and Lake St. Clair between them, form an 89-mile long channel connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie. The 35-mile Niagara River links lakes Erie and Ontario, and sends approximately 50,000 to 100,000 cubic feet of water per second over Niagara Falls; the manmade Welland Canal also links the two lakes, providing a detour around the falls. From Lake Ontario, the water from the Great Lakes flows through the St. Lawrence River all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, about 1,000 miles away.
This system greatly affects our way of life, as well as all aspects of the natural environment, from weather and climate, to wildlife and habitat. Yet for all their size and power, the Great Lakes are fragile. In the past, this fragile nature wasn’t recognized, and the lakes were mistreated for economic gain, placing the ecosystem under tremendous stress from our activities. Today, we understand that our health and our children’s inheritance depend on our collective efforts to wisely manage our complex ecosystem.
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Since its consolidation in 1898, New York City has been a metropolitan municipality with a "strong" mayor-council form of government. The government of New York is more centralized than that of most other U.S. cities. In New York City, the central government is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, libraries, public safety, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply and welfare services. The mayor and councillors are elected to four-year terms. The New York City Council is a unicameral body consisting of 51 Council members whose districts are defined by geographic population boundaries. The mayor and councilors are limited to two four-year terms.
The mayor is Michael Bloomberg, a former Democrat and current independent elected as a Republican in 2001 and re-elected in 2005 with 59% of the vote. He is known for taking control of the city’s education system from the state, rezoning and economic development, sound fiscal management, and aggressive public health policy. In his second term he has made school reform, poverty reduction, and strict gun control central priorities of his administration. Together with Boston mayor Thomas Menino, in 2006 he founded the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization with the goal of "making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets." The Democratic Party holds the majority of public offices. 66% of registered voters in the city are Democrats. New York City has not been won by a Republican in a statewide or presidential election since 1924. Party platforms center on affordable housing, education and economic development, and labor politics are of importance in the city.
New York is the most important source of political fundraising in the United States, as four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top zip code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the 2004 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and John Kerry. The city has a strong imbalance of payments with the national and state governments. It receives 83 cents in services for every $1 it sends to the federal government in taxes (or annually sends $11.4 billion more than it receives back). The city also sends an additional $11 billion more each year to the state of New York than it receives back.
Located near City Hall are the courthouse for the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and the Jacob K. Javits Federal Building. Manhattan also hosts the NY Appellate Division, First Department. Brooklyn hosts the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York, and NY Appellate Division, Second Department. As with any county, each Borough has a branch of the New York Supreme Court and other New York State courts.
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In the 1980s, crime rates spiked and in the early 1990s as the crack epidemic hit the city, but by the mid 1990s and early 21st century crime rates had greatly subsided and since the year 2005 the city had the lowest crime rate of the 25 largest U.S cities. By 2002 New York City had about the same crime rate as Provo, Utah and was ranked 197th in overall crime among the 216 U.S. cities with populations greater than 100,000. Violent crime in New York City decreased more than 75% from 1993 to 2005 and continued decreasing during periods when the nation as a whole saw increases. In 2005 the homicide rate was at its lowest level since 1963. In 2007 New York City recorded fewer than 500 homicides for the first time ever since crime statistics were first published in 1963.
Organized crime has long been associated with New York City, beginning with the Forty Thieves and the Roach Guards in the Five Points in the 1820s. The 20th century saw a rise in the Mafia dominated by the Five Families. Gangs including the Black Spades also grew in the late 20th century.
Sociologists and criminologists have not reached consensus on what explains the dramatic decrease in the city’s crime rate. Some attribute the phenomenon to new tactics used by the New York City Police Department, including its use of CompStat and the broken windows theory. Others cite the end of the crack epidemic and demographic changes.
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